Although peripheral nerves can regenerate more readily than the central nervous system, they frequently do not fully heal from injuries. While similar spinal cord injuries show limited recovery, crushed sciatic nerves can regenerate most axons and regain function in a few weeks in mouse models (11). However, even PNS injuries can induce chronic deficits due to target atrophy during denervation and slow axonal regrowth (~1 mm/day) (1). Conventional methods such as auto grafts and end-to-end suturing are ineffective for wide gaps and endanger healthy nerves (13). New tactics therefore seek to improve regeneration.

Following axon injury, Schwann cells (SCs) dedifferentiate into a "repair" phenotype that upregulates trophic factors, clears myelin debris, and forms Büngner bands to guide regenerating axons (2). Exogenous SC transplantation into damaged nerves can accelerate regeneration, but cell supply and survival are still concerns. SC in vitro culture models are critical for biological research and the development of cell-based treatments (14). In contrast, traditional flat (2D) plastic cultures lack the 3D structure, mechanical signals, and cell-matrix interactions present in brain tissue(4). Cells grown in 2D are intentionally distributed and polarized, altering gene expression and inhibiting neurotrophic factor release. In contrast, 3D culture techniques allow SCs to adopt in vivo-like morphologies and interactions, resulting in increased proliferation, migration, differentiation, and secretory profiles (5).

Several 3D SC models have been developed over the last decade (Table 1), utilizing spheroid aggregation, hydrogel embedding, fibrous scaffolds, and 3D bioprinting. These models are used to create nerve tissue (e.g., cell-laden nerve conduits), as well as in vitro platforms for drug testing and disease modeling. This review discusses SC biology (Section 2), 2D culture limitations (3), and 3D SC culture advances, including reasoning (4.1), 2D versus 3D differences (4.2), model types (5.1-5.4), biomaterials (6), applications (7), and current difficulties (8). Advanced biomaterials, stem cell technologies, and clinical translation are all potential future prospects (9). To give a comprehensive, evidence-based narrative, we refer to both recent primary studies and high-quality reviews (2015-2025).

BIOLOGY AND FUNCTIONS OF SCHWANN CELL IN PERIPHERAL NERVE REGENRATION:

Origin and Types:

 Schwann cells (SCs) are produced from the embryonic neural crest, a migratory cell population that generates many peripheral lineages (18). Schwann cell precursors (SCPs) on developing peripheral axons differentiate into two types of SCs: myelinating SCs, which wrap large-diameter axons in insulating myelin sheaths, allowing for rapid saltatory conduction, and non-myelinating (Remak) SCs, which ensheath smaller axons (17). Myelinating SCs have unique markers including P0 protein and myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), which are controlled by axonal Neuregulin-1 signaling (20). Non-myelinating SCs express markers that promote unmyelinated fibers, such as L1 cell adhesion molecule and p75^NTR. In response to injury, both SC types decrease myelin gene expression, including P0, and adopt an immature, repair-promoting phenotype (14). Unlike CNS oligodendrocytes, mature SCs can function independently and form autocrine loops to compensate for axon loss (22).

Role in Axonal Regenration:

SCs coordinate critical regenerative events after an injury. Distal to a nerve lesion, denervated SCs (formerly myelinating or Remak) convert into "repair Schwann cells" or Büngner cells, which release neurotrophic factors (e.g., NGF, BDNF, GDNF) and cytokines and actively phagocytose myelin debris (with macrophage help) (23). Repair SCs multiply and extend long cellular processes, resulting in Büngner bands that guide regrowing axons back to their destinations (2). SCs activate macrophages and eliminate inhibitory myelin debris through cytokine signaling (24). When axons renew, SCs remyelinate them or form non-myelinating ensheathments to reestablish conduction (1). SCs are essential for nerve regeneration in vivo, as grafts from devitalized nerves without them only partially guide axons (3). As a result, SCs act as both biophysical guides and biochemical support cells, making them important participants in peripheral nerve repair.

Schwann cell axon interaction:

Schwann cells and axons exchange messages in both directions. NRG1 isoforms, particularly type III, play an important role in SC development and myelination. High NRG1 levels on axons promote SC myelination (thicker myelin sheaths), whereas low NRG1 causes thinner or non-myelinating ensheathment (20). In contrast, SCs provide contact-dependent cues by expressing adhesion molecules

and growth regulators, which impact axon activity. SCs express the L2/HNK-1 carbohydrate epitope on

glycoproteins, which is prevalent in motor-nerve-associated SCs and promotes motor neuron regeneration (27). SCs express polysialic acid (PSA) on NCAM, which inhibits cell adhesion and promotes flexibility during regeneration. They also use inhibitory molecules like MAG at the nodes to prevent aberrant sprouting (28). The coordinated form of SCs in nerve cables directs axon growth along optimal pathways (29). The SC-axon unit works as a system, with regenerating axons relying on SC guidance and trophic support, and SCs requiring axonal signals (e.g., NRG1) to survive (41-2). Any 3D culture model of nerve regeneration should include these strong SC-axon connections.

Limitations of traditional 2DSchwann Cell Culture Models :

Conventional SC cultures grown on flat plastic are useful for basic research, but they have severe limitations in simulating regeneration. In two dimensions, cells flatten and polarize abnormally, exposing only one face of the substrate. This geometry affects cell shape and gene expression profiles in respect to in vivo circumstances (4). Most importantly, 2D systems lack the 3D matrix and cell-to-cell interactions present in native SCs in nerves. As a result, numerous SC activities are reduced, including poorer neurotrophic factor production in 2D compared to 3D (5). Cells in two dimensions cannot develop aligned structures or multilayered "bands" to guide axons. Furthermore, stiffness in 2D cultures is usually orders of magnitude higher (plastic dishes vs. soft tissue), which may influence SC differentiation and mechanosensitive signaling (30).

SCs in 3D hydrogels or scaffolds exhibited increased proliferation, migration, differentiation, and expression of repair-associated genes relative to 2D cultures (31). Two-dimensional models also fail to capture growth hormone concentration gradients and spatial signals required for axonal guidance. According to [12], traditional two-dimensional culturing techniques are insufficient to recreate the distinct microenvironment of brain tissue. In conclusion, 2D cultures create artificial conditions that limit SC functionality. These constraints have prompted the development of 3D culture techniques that better replicate in vivo architecture and biology.

DEVELOPMENT OF 3D SCHWNN CELLS CULTURE SYSTEM

Rationale for 3D Culture:

The goal of 3D SC culture is to better imitate the neural microenvironment. Embedding SCs in 3D matrices or aggregating them into spheroids enables cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions that are not present in 2D. This often leads to more physically realistic behavior. Like the one below: "3D cell conglomerates often serve as more reliable experimental models than monolayer cultures" (30) . SCs grown in 3D hydrogel networks or scaffolds with physiologic stiffness enhance injury models and drug screening by imitating the biochemical and mechanical signals found in normal nerve tissue (32). Early study showed that SCs delivered in 3D structures (such as injectable gels or cell-loaded conduits) could survive and integrate better into host tissue (34).

2D VS 3D: CONTRAST IN SCHWANN CELL BEHAVIOR:

Comparative studies have proven the effect of 3D culture on SCs. In vitro, SCs in hydrogels or scaffolds proliferate and migrate more than in 2D monolayers (5). Tokunaga et al. discovered that 3D spheroids of adipose-derived SC-like cells outperformed 2D cultures for differentiation efficiency and neurotrophic factor secretion (34). Entezari et al. observed that SCs on aligned conductive scaffolds expressed higher levels of SC markers (e.g. S100β) and produced more neurotrophic factors than on flat surfaces (35). Podder et al. discovered that functionalizing PCL nanofibers with Neuregulin-1 stimulated SC formation by boosting myelin protein expression, despite somewhat lower proliferation than 2D cultures (36). In 3D cultures, repair-associated genes such c-Jun and BDNF, as well as extracellular matrix proteins, are increased, resembling nerve injury (9, 5). Aggregation into 3D SC. Spheroids produced a repair phenotype by upregulating c-Jun and downregulating myelin proteins, which corresponded to the in vivo damage response. 3D cultures improve on 2D by restoring cell polarity, allowing for cell-matrix interactions, and creating nutrition and signal gradients (38).

TYPES OF 3D MODELS:

SPHEROIDS:

Spheroids are multicellular, scaffold-free aggregates made from hanging-drop, low-adhesion plates or micro-molds (34). Spheroids are usually made from primary Schwann cells or SC-like cells derived from stem cells, such as differentiated adipose MSCs. Spheroids create extensive cell-to-cell contacts and deposit their own matrix, promoting survival and trophic factor secretion. Lin et al. used methylcellulose to create spheroids of umbilical cord MSC-derived Schwann-like cells; these 3D spheroids contained more neurotropic and angiogenic factors than dissociated cells and, when transplanted into injured sciatic nerves, significantly improved axon regeneration and functional recovery(6).

HYDROGEN BASED MODELS:

Hydrogels are water-swollen polymer networks that look like the hydrated extracellular matrix. 3D SC cultures have been carried out using both natural hydrogels (collagen, fibrin, gelatin, Matrigel, alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid) and synthetic hydrogels (PEG, polyisocyanides (PIC), GelMA, polyacrylamide) (37). Natural hydrogels typically contain cell-binding motifs and growth factors to aid in attachment and signaling. Collagen and fibrin gels are commonly employed as luminal fillers in nerve conduits and SC substrates (32). Collagen matrices can be constructed into aligned channels that mirror Büngner's bands, guiding SCs and axons; aligned collagen scaffolds connected in conduits stimulated robust axon development in rat sciatic nerve grafts(42). (13). Fibrin, a blood clotting protein, is injectable and encourages cell migration. Bio printing studies often use fibrin blends: Wiklund et al. found that 3D-printed fibrin conduits (9 mg/mL fibrinogen) with SCs (and half-strength MSC co-culture) supported high viability and neurite outgrowth (41)(7).

SCAFFOLD BASED MODELS:

3D scaffolds are solid matrices with interconnected pores or fibers that help cells grow. Natural materials include collagen-chitosan composites, silk, and decellularized nerves, whereas synthetic materials include electrospun PCL, PLA, PLGA, polyurethane, and conductive polymers such as polypyrrole. Electrospinning, freeze-drying, 3D printing, and other techniques can be used to create scaffolds with the appropriate architecture (44). One notable advantage is structural guidance: matching fibers or channels replicate Büngner's Bands, which physically guide SCs and axons. In rat nerve healing models, fused oriented electrospun PCL fibers (typically coated with ECM) have been demonstrated to induce SC elongation and alignment, hence aligning regenerating axons(45).

3D BIO PRINTED CONSTRUCTS:

Bioprinting involves layering cells and biomaterials to create accurate 3D structures (30). In peripheral nerve research, bioprinting allows for the creation of personalized nerve conduits or tissue models with spatial control over cell placement. For example, fibrin- or GelMA-based bioinks containing SCs (sometimes in conjunction with MSCs or neurons) have been printed into conduit or grid patterns. Wiklund et al. (2023) found that 3D printing fibrin hydrogels containing SCs and MSCs resulted in stable conduits with high cell survival (>90%) and neurite outgrowth (41). Importantly, they discovered that even after 50% reduction in SC numbers (and replacement with MSCs), neurite growth remained well regulated.

Liu et al. bioprinted a conduit of PCL and an alginate-gelatin-fibrin bioink containing SCs and endothelial cells, resulting in aligned SCs and neural growth in vitro (39). Bioprinting can also incorporate gradients of growth agents or heterogeneity. Zhu et al. employed coaxial printing to insert SCs into a conduit, resulting in enhanced neurite outgrowth compared to controls (39).

BIOMATERIALS USED:

Biomaterial selection is critical in 3D SC models. Materials are classed as natural, synthetic, or hybrid composites (37). Natural biomaterials like collagen, fibrin, laminin, silk, and Matrigel are bioactive and imitate the extracellular matrix (10). The most often utilized collagen is type I, which forms gels and fibrous scaffolds, has RGD patterns for SC adherence, and can be molded into aligned channels (42).

Fibrin, a blood clotting protein, is injectable and promotes fast cell invasion. Laminin-rich Matrigel (basement membrane extract) and decellularized neuronal ECM (dECM) offer complex cues, although they are obtained from animals with batch variability (45). Hyaluronic acid (HA), gelatin, and alginate are also employed; however, HA must be treated for proper cell adherence. Synthetic biomaterials (including PEG, polyacrylamide, PIC, PCL, PLA, PLGA, polyurethanes, and poly-L-lactic acid) provide tunable mechanics and chemistry (320).

PEG-based hydrogels are bioinert unless functionalized with peptides, allowing for precise control of stiffness and disintegration. Polyisocyanide (PIC) is a thermoresponsive polymer capable of producing injectable gels. Xu et al. demonstrated that PIC can support long-term SC spheroids (43). Electrospun PCL and PLA fibers are effective guides for SC alignment, but they lack natural cell attachment sites (which are normally coated in collagen) (37). Conductive polymers (polypyrrole, polyaniline) are being studied to mimic neuron electrophysiology; they have been demonstrated to promote SC differentiation and factor release (19).

APPLICATIONS:

NERVE TISSUE ENGINEERING:

One common application is to create nerve grafts or conduits for nerve repair. Cell-laden 3D structures can close nerve gaps by providing a biological substrate for axon growth. SC-seeded tubular scaffolds, such as collagen or synthetic conduits, have been implanted over nerve lesions to guide axon regeneration (18). Bioprinting techniques produce cell-laden conduits with specific lumens and cell distributions. In animal studies, conduits including SC spheroids have showed increased regeneration compared to acellular conduits. Chuang et al. implanted SC spheroids in rat sciatic nerve gaps and reported improved nerve structure and motor function recovery(9)(21).

Researchers have also developed "living nerve grafts": aligned fibrous scaffolds seeded with SCs and extracellular matrix that may be prepared in vitro and then transplanted. Aligned collagen-PCL scaffolds seeded with SCs improved axon ingrowth across gaps, resulting in higher nerve fiber counts distant to the injury (39). Tissue-engineered nerve grafts can be optimized using growth factor gradients or directed channels, and microfluidic "organ-on-chip" devices allow for graft pre-conditioning. In summary, 3D SC cultures are employed to create implantable structures that actively stimulate nerve healing in vivo.

NERVE GRAFTS AND CONDUICT:

Nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) are hollow, biodegradable tubes that bridge nerve transections. Traditional conduits (silicone or collagen tubes) are suitable for small gaps (~1 cm) but lack SC content (44). Modern conduits are designed to include SCs or SC-like cells to resemble autografts. Conduits can be pre-seeded with SCs (generated from nerve or stem cells) or have SC spheroids put in the lumen(7). Bioprinted conduits with embedded SCs are a next-generation NGC. Another strategy is to use decellularized nerve allografts, which give native basal lamina tubes and can be recellularized with SCs (or SC precursors) to increase their regeneration capacity. Cell-based conduits can be enhanced by slow-release growth agents.

DRUG SCREENING AND DISEASE MODELING:

Beyond implantation, 3D SC cultures are useful in vitro platforms for testing treatments and simulating illnesses. Biomimetic nerve-on-chip technologies mimic certain features of nerve physiology. Sharma et al. created a "human nerve-on-a-chip" using iPSC-derived neurons and primary human SCs in a microfluidic device, resulting in around 5 mm neurite extension and detectable conduction velocity (8). This all-human in vitro nerve enabled for drug testing on electrophysiology and histology, which is not possible with typical 2D. Park et al. created a 3D model of motor neurons and SCs in collagen gel. They found that adding ascorbic acid increased myelin gene expression whereas neuregulin-1 therapy decreased it (10). These models can be used to replicate neuropathic states or injuries in order to investigate demyelinating disorders and potential treatments.

CURRENT CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS:

Despite progress, 3D Schwann cell models have challenges. It is tough to establish uniform cell distribution and viability in large constructions because nutrient diffusion limits thickness, necessitating the use of perfusion bioreactors or microfluidic flow. Hydrogels can lose mechanical strength over time, necessitating the use of composite scaffolds for implantable grafts (36). Optimizing SC alignment and forming organized Büngner Bands in vitro is difficult; while aligned fibers and microchannels can help, accurate replication of natural neural architecture remains elusive. Immune responses to implanted biomaterials and cells can be problematic; even decellularized scaffolds can produce inflammation if not properly handled (33). Scalability and standardization are another barrier. Generating consistent, functioning SCs in large quantities is difficult: primary SCs must be carefully grown, and stem cell-derived SC differentiation techniques varies between laboratories. Many published 3D models use small rat SCs, while human SC models are less common and more varied. Adoption of functional readouts, such as nerve conduction velocity, is limited due to the need for specific instruments and expertise (12).

Schwann cells play an important role in peripheral nerve regeneration, and 3D culture models provide effective platforms for harnessing and studying their capacities. Compared to 2D cultures, 3D settings sustain SC shape and function, resulting in physiologically appropriate behavior (15). Spheroids, hydrogels, scaffolds, and bioprinted constructions all have distinct advantages (Table 1) and can be customized with various biomaterials (Table 2) to enhance SC viability and alignment. Advances in biomaterials and stem cell technologies will further refine these models, making them important for building nerve grafts as well as in vitro disease or medication testing platforms (16). While challenges with fabrication, scalability, and translation remain, the field is continually evolving. Finally, adding 3D SC systems into preclinical research and therapy development opens up the possibility of more effective treatments for peripheral nerve injury and neuropathies. Future study should focus on standardizing techniques, comparing models to clinical outcomes, and demonstrating long-term safety. The large recent literature demonstrates that 3D Schwann cell models are capable of bridging the gap between experimental nerve regeneration research and clinical application.

1. Sharma AD, McCoy L, Jacobs E, Willey H, Behn JQ, Nguyen H, Bolon B, Curley JL, Moore MJ. Engineering a 3D functional human peripheral nerve in vitro using the Nerve-on-a-Chip platform. Scientific reports. 2019 Jun 20;9(1):8921.
2. Chen SH, Wang HW, Yang PC, Chen SS, Ho CH, Yang PC, Kao YC, Liu SW, Chiu H, Lin YJ, Chuang EY. Schwann cells acquire a repair phenotype after assembling into spheroids and show enhanced in vivo therapeutic potential for promoting peripheral nerve repair. Bioengineering & Translational Medicine. 2024 Mar;9(2):e10635.
3. Lin YJ, Lee YW, Chang CW, Huang CC. 3D spheroids of umbilical cord blood MSC-derived Schwann cells promote peripheral nerve regeneration. Frontiers in cell and developmental biology. 2020 Dec 17;8:604946.
4. Chen S, Ikemoto T, Tokunaga T, Okikawa S, Miyazaki K, Yamada S, Saito Y, Morine Y, Shimada M. Newly generated 3D Schwann-like cell spheroids from human adipose-derived stem cells using a modified protocol. Cell Transplantation. 2022 Apr;31:09636897221093312.
5. Alakpa EV, Bahrd A, Wiklund K, Andersson M, Novikov LN, Ljungberg C, Kelk P. Bioprinted schwann and mesenchymal stem cell co-cultures for enhanced spatial control of neurite outgrowth. Gels. 2023 Feb 22;9(3):172.
6. Richardson KA. The Development of Blood-Brain Barrier Cell Culture Models and Relevant Assessment Tools(Doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University).
7. Bolívar S, Navarro X, Udina E. Schwann cell role in selectivity of nerve regeneration. Cells. 2020 Sep 20;9(9):2131.
8. Park SE, Ahn J, Jeong HE, Youn I, Huh D, Chung S. A three-dimensional in vitro model of the peripheral nervous system. NPG Asia Materials. 2021 Dec;13(1):2.
9. Jessen KR, Mirsky R. The repair Schwann cell and its function in regenerating nerves. The Journal of physiology. 2016 Jul 1;594(13):3521-31.
10. Rocha M. Cdx4 Regulates the Development of Neural Crest Cells in the Posterior Body of Zebrafish Embryos(Doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago).
11. Lischer M, di Summa PG, Petrou IG, Schaefer DJ, Guzman R, Kalbermatten DF, Madduri S. Mesenchymal stem cells in nerve tissue engineering: bridging nerve gap injuries in large animals. International journal of molecular sciences. 2023 Apr 25;24(9):7800.
12. Cacciamali A, Villa R, Dotti S. 3D cell cultures: evolution of an ancient tool for new applications. Frontiers in physiology. 2022 Jul 22;13:836480.
13. Ma C, Liu K, Li Q, Xiong Y, Xu C, Zhang W, Ruan C, Li X, Lei X. Synthetic extracellular matrices for 3D culture of schwann cells, hepatocytes, and HUVECs. Bioengineering. 2022 Sep 8;9(9):453.
14. Bolívar S, Navarro X, Udina E. Schwann cell role in selectivity of nerve regeneration. Cells. 2020 Sep 20;9(9):2131.
15. Sango K. Novel neuron-Schwann cell co-culture models to study peripheral nerve degeneration and regeneration. Neural regeneration research. 2023 Aug 1;18(8):1732-3.
16. Wang J, Zheng W, Chen L, Zhu T, Shen W, Fan C, Wang H, Mo X. Enhancement of Schwann cells function using graphene-oxide-modified nanofiber scaffolds for peripheral nerve regeneration. ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering. 2019 Apr 16;5(5):2444-56.
17. Choi T, Park J, Lee S, Jeon HJ, Kim BH, Kim HO, Lee H. 3D Bioprinted Neural Tissues: Emerging Strategies for Regeneration and Disease Modeling. Pharmaceutics. 2025 Sep 10;17(9):1176.
18. Weiss T, Taschner-Mandl S, Janker L, Bileck A, Rifatbegovic F, Kromp F, Sorger H, Kauer MO, Frech C, Windhager R, Gerner C. Schwann cell plasticity regulates neuroblastic tumor cell differentiation via epidermal growth factor-like protein 8. Nature communications. 2021 Mar 12;12(1):1624.
19. Nectow AR, Marra KG, Kaplan DL. Biomaterials for the development of peripheral nerve guidance conduits. Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews. 2012 Feb 1;18(1):40-50.
20. Chen S, Ikemoto T, Tokunaga T, Okikawa S, Miyazaki K, Yamada S, Saito Y, Morine Y, Shimada M. Newly generated 3D Schwann-like cell spheroids from human adipose-derived stem cells using a modified protocol. Cell Transplantation. 2022 Apr;31:09636897221093312.
21. Rahman M, Mahady Dip T, Padhye R, Houshyar S. Review on electrically conductive smart nerve guide conduit for peripheral nerve regeneration. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A. 2023 Dec;111(12):1916-50.
22. Huang J, Hu X, Lu L, Ye Z, Zhang Q, Luo Z. Electrical regulation of Schwann cells using conductive polypyrrole/chitosan polymers. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A: An Official Journal of The Society for Biomaterials, The Japanese Society for Biomaterials, and The Australian Society for Biomaterials and the Korean Society for Biomaterials. 2010 Apr;93(1):164-74.
23. Wilson ER, Della‐Flora Nunes G, Weaver MR, Frick LR, Feltri ML. Schwann cell interactions during the development of the peripheral nervous system. Developmental neurobiology. 2021 Jul;81(5):464-89.
24. Adriani G, Ma D, Pavesi A, Kamm RD, Goh EL. A 3D neurovascular microfluidic model consisting of neurons, astrocytes and cerebral endothelial cells as a blood–brain barrier. Lab on a Chip. 2017;17(3):448-59.
25. Yao C, Zhou X, Weng W, Poonit K, Sun C, Yan H. Aligned nanofiber nerve conduits inhibit alpha smooth muscle actin expression and collagen proliferation by suppressing TGF-β1/SMAD signaling in traumatic neuromas. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine. 2021 Dec;22(6):1414.
26. Hsu MW, Chen SH, Tseng WL, Hung KS, Chung TC, Lin SC, Koo J, Hsueh YY. Physical processing for decellularized nerve xenograft in peripheral nerve regeneration. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 2023 May 30;11:1217067.
27. Yu X, Zhang T, Li Y. 3D printing and bioprinting nerve conduits for neural tissue engineering. Polymers. 2020 Jul 23;12(8):1637.
28. Gnavi S, Fornasari BE, Tonda-Turo C, Laurano R, Zanetti M, Ciardelli G, Geuna S. The effect of electrospun gelatin fibers alignment on schwann cell and axon behavior and organization in the perspective of artificial nerve design. International journal of molecular sciences. 2015 Jun 8;16(6):12925-42.
29. Gnavi S, Fornasari BE, Tonda-Turo C, Laurano R, Zanetti M, Ciardelli G, Geuna S. The effect of electrospun gelatin fibers alignment on schwann cell and axon behavior and organization in the perspective of artificial nerve design. International journal of molecular sciences. 2015 Jun 8;16(6):12925-42.
30. Siddique R, Thakor N. Investigation of nerve injury through microfluidic devices. Journal of The Royal Society Interface. 2014 Jan 6;11(90).
31. Wang J, Zheng W, Chen L, Zhu T, Shen W, Fan C, Wang H, Mo X. Enhancement of Schwann cells function using graphene-oxide-modified nanofiber scaffolds for peripheral nerve regeneration. ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering. 2019 Apr 16;5(5):2444-56.
32. Wen LL, Yu TH, Ma YZ, Mao XY, Ao TR, Javed R, Ten H, Matsuno A, Ao Q. Sequential expression of miR-221-3p and miR-338-3p in Schwann cells as a therapeutic strategy to promote nerve regeneration and functional recovery. Neural Regeneration Research. 2023 Mar 1;18(3):671-82.
33. Huang Y, Wu W, Liu H, Chen Y, Li B, Gou Z, Li X, Gou M. 3D printing of functional nerve guide conduits. Burns & Trauma. 2021;9:tkab011.
34. Nikolova MP, Chavali MS. Recent advances in biomaterials for 3D scaffolds: A review. Bioactive materials. 2019 Dec 1;4:271-92.
35. Ma C, Liu K, Li Q, Xiong Y, Xu C, Zhang W, Ruan C, Li X, Lei X. Synthetic extracellular matrices for 3D culture of schwann cells, hepatocytes, and HUVECs. Bioengineering. 2022 Sep 8;9(9):453.
36. Matsas R, Lavdas AA, Papastefanaki F, Thomaidou D. Schwann cell transplantation for CNS repair. Current medicinal chemistry. 2008 Jan 1;15(2):151-60.
37. Hörner SJ, Couturier N, Bruch R, Koch P, Hafner M, Rudolf R. hiPSC-derived schwann cells influence myogenic differentiation in neuromuscular cocultures. Cells. 2021 Nov 24;10(12):3292.
38. Majd H, Amin S, Ghazizadeh Z, Cesiulis A, Arroyo E, Lankford K, Majd A, Farahvashi S, Chemel AK, Okoye M, Scantlen MD, Tchieu J, Calder EL, Le Rouzic V, Shibata B, Arab A, Goodarzi H, Pasternak G, Kocsis JD, Chen S, Studer L, Fattahi F. Deriving Schwann cells from hPSCs enables disease modeling and drug discovery for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Cell Stem Cell. 2023 May 4;30(5):632-647.e10. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.04.006. PMID: 37146583; PMCID: PMC10249419.
39. Chai S, Huang J, Mahmut A, Wang B, Yao Y, Zhang X, Zhuang Z, Xie C, Xu Z, Jiang Q. Injectable photo-crosslinked bioactive BMSCs-BMP2-GelMA scaffolds for bone defect repair. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 2022 Mar 24;10:875363.
40. Sultan S, Mathew AP. 3D printed scaffolds with gradient porosity based on a cellulose nanocrystal hydrogel. Nanoscale. 2018;10(9):4421-31.
41. Jia Z, Zeng H, Ye X, Dai M, Tang C, Liu L. Hydrogel-based treatments for spinal cord injuries. Heliyon. 2023 Sep 1;9(9).
42. Morell P, Toews AD. Schwann cells as targets for neurotoxicants. Neurotoxicology. 1996 Sep 1;17(3-4):685-95.
43. Sun J, Warden AR, Ding X. Recent advances in microfluidics for drug screening. Biomicrofluidics. 2019 Nov 1;13(6).
44. Lv XG, Feng C, Fu Q, Xie H, Wang Y, Huang JW, Xie MK, Atala A, Xu YM, Zhao WX. Comparative study of different seeding methods based on a multilayer SIS scaffold: Which is the optimal procedure for urethral tissue engineering?. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials. 2016 Aug;104(6):1098-108.
45. Deepa G, Shrikrishna BH, SHRIKRISHNA B. The Role of Stem Cells in Peripheral Nerve Regeneration: A Narrative Review. Cureus. 2025 Sep 2;17(9).